5.1: About This Chapter

Engineering is the application of the principles  of mathematics and science to the creation or modification of components, systems, and processes (which are often referred to as a product or an artifact) for the benefit of society. 

Engineers use a series of logical steps (the engineering design process) to create such artifacts which represent a balance between quality, performance, and cost. This chapter explores and examines the role and connections of math and science to engineering and the need to succeed in the study of those subjects for a professional career in engineering.

Chapter Learning Objectives

After working through this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

• Explain the goals and the nature of the fields of science, mathematics, and engineering and the differences between them.
• Explain generally how the fields of math and science and engineering benefit from one another as well as need one another.
• Explain what engineers in different disciplines do and the math and science they use.
• Explain the role of science and math in each step of the engineering design process.
• Describe the types of science and math that might be used by engineers in the different engineering disciplines along with an example for the design of a product or a process.

5.2: Case History: How Math, Science, and Engineering Led to the First Pocket Radio

Imagine that it is November 1, 1954 and Dwight “Ike” Eisenhower is president and Leo Durocher’s Brooklyn Giants have just swept the World Series from the Cleveland Indians. Willie Mays has become a World Series legend after making “The Catch” in center field over his head with his back to the infield. Today, you have also just purchased a Regency TR-1 (Figure 1), the world’s first “pocket” radio. It cost $49.95 (equivalent to $400 in 2007 dollars) with its four transistors, and you are now listening to Elvis Presley’s first hit, “That's All Right”. The radio is gray, weighs 12 ounces, and with a size of , you could slip it right into your pocket. This is a lot more convenient than the old vacuum tube portable radios which were bigger, bulkier, and heavier than the new transistor radio. One of these is an RCA 66BX, a six-tube portable radio that weighed 3 pounds and was  in size. Where did this incredible piece of shrinking technology come from? We shall see.

The basic scientific knowledge necessary to develop a transistor radio started from the time when, on December 14, 1900, German physicist Max Planck explained to the world how an atom’s electrons behaved with a new theory called quantum mechanics. Over the next 20 years a mathematical model was developed for this theory, including an important equation called Schrödinger’s equation. From there, it was these basic principles of science and mathematics directed toward their practical application in electrical devices that led three researchers at Bell Labs on a race. The race was to invent a solid-state device that would replace bulky, unreliable, and energy-consuming vacuum tubes used in consumer electronics (such as radios) at the time. So it was that, on October 16, 1947, physicists John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley, applied the mathematics and science of quantum physics to semiconductors to invent the world’s first transistor. They had created a device that could amplify a weak electronic signal 18 times over a wide range of frequencies. For their efforts they received the Nobel Prize in 1956.

Now that this new device existed, how would it be used? Texas Instruments used special materials processing techniques to make very pure semiconductor material necessary for transistors and started manufacturing them by 1952. Using those transistors, which cost $2.50 each ($2.50 will buy 100 million transistors on an integrated circuit today), engineers at the Regency Division of IDEA (Industrial Development Engineering Associates) of Indianapolis, Indiana, used the engineering design process to design, develop, and fabricate the world's first pocket radio. The electrical engineers at Regency used their industrial experience and the knowledge from their education on physics, mathematics, engineering science and electrical engineering to design a small radio; 100,000 units were manufactured. The connections of science and math to engineering are clear. The understanding of a phenomenon of the natural world, quantum physics, and the mathematical modeling of the phenomenon promoted the insights on the electrical behavior of semiconducting materials. It was the three researchers at Bell Labs who were searching for a solution to the well-defined problem of poor electrical behavior of vacuum tubes that led the team to invent the transistor. It was a very practical device indeed, since materials engineers at Texas Instruments were able to produce transistors in quantity so that another team of electrical engineers at IDEA could design, develop, and manufacture that first pocket radio.

The above case history of the first transistor radio illustrates the interplay of math, science, and engineering that occur in commercialization of a new device that later thrilled the country. And it did not take long for society to realize the benefits of quantum mechanics, Schrödinger’s equation, and the invention of the transistor. You could see it on some playgrounds a year after the Regency TR-1 was first merchandized. A crowd gathered around kids that brought their dads’ pocket radios to listen to the  World Series when the Brooklyn Dodgers beat the New Yankees in seven games. That miraculous little radio was a reflection of the “can do” spirit of the decade of the 1950s. Engineering could make science fiction reality. At the time cartoon detective character Dick Tracy had an imagined video-walkie-talkie-computer wrist watch, which he used to run down the city’s criminals. Part of it became a reality but now, a half century later, today’s high tech embodiment of Tracy’s watch, the iPhone, can do everything Tracy’s watch did and more. Next, let us consider the impact of technology in your own life from the exercise below.

ctivity

How does technology affect you and your everyday life? Technology created by engineers affects everyone in their daily lives, usually in subtle understated ways. Try this exercise to explore the impact of technology with devices such as the electric toothbrush or the microwave, as shown in Figure 2.

• Write down a short list of three or four electronic devices or gadgets that you use everyday.
• Write a short description of how you use them, how they affect your life, and how your life would be affected if they had not yet been invented.
• Take a guess at what kinds of engineers were involved in helping create one of the devices. Select one type of engineer and think about how she/he how might have used math and science in making the device?

5.3: What Is the Role of Science and Mathematics in Engineering?

This chapter has already introduced some ways in which science and math are connected to engineering. The chapter will continue to explore these connections in invention, innovation, education, careers, and design, as well as the impact on our daily lives. It is also becoming clear why it is critical to prepare for engineering education in college by taking and doing well in science and math courses throughout elementary, middle, and high school. In fact, the single best indicator of success in graduating with a college degree in engineering, science or math is taking courses in high school that include four years of math (at least through trigonometry) and three years of lab science. In the remainder of this chapter, we will now expand, articulate, detail, and exercise the engineering–math–science connection. The techniques of mathematics and the phenomena of science are like the brushes and colors on an artist’s palette. Just as an artist creates a new reality with his/her painting, so does an engineer create a new reality for how individuals live in a society. We have seen an example of this not only with the creation of the first pocket radio, but also how the reality of our daily lives have been impacted by other artifacts such as the cell phone and the computer. The next section will examine in greater detail the nature of the connection between math, science, and engineering.

What Is Engineering?

Engineering creates valued products such as the pocket radio. This is done by analyzing the nature of a problem or a need and then applying knowledge of math and science while completing the engineering design process to develop a solution to the design problem. A knowledge of science (e.g., chemistry, physics, and biology) helps the engineer understand the constraints inherent in a problem and helps the engineer develop possible approaches for a solution. Math (e.g., algebra, geometry, calculus, computer computation) is used both as a tool to create mathematical models that describe physical phenomena and as a tool to evaluate the merit of different possible solutions.

The profession of engineering is more formally defined by ABET, an organization that accredits college engineering programs, as “Engineering design is the process of devising a system, component, or process to meet desired needs. It is a decision-making process (often iterative), in which the basic sciences, mathematics, and the engineering sciences are applied to convert resources optimally to meet these stated needs.” Within this definition, science and mathematics are described as an essential part of the entire engineering process. They do not act alone within this process. “Engineers apply the principles of science and math to develop economical solutions to technical problems. Their work is the link between perceived social needs and commercial application.” (US Department of Labor) The goals of math and of science in engineering differ from those within the field of mathematics (where the goal is to quantitatively represent functional relationships) or the field of science (where the goal is to understand the natural world). In engineering, math and science are tools used within the engineering design process. Using the design process to address a problem or an issue leads to the solution of the problem and a product which might be a component, a system, or a process that fulfills a need that will benefit society. All fields of engineering use the tools of both math and science throughout all steps of the engineering design process. Effective use of math and science are critical to creating a high-quality solution to a need and an associated product of the process.

It often occurs that a high-quality product that comes out of an effective design process (including math and science) is taken for granted, such as a bridge standing for decades or centuries with no problems. Such a situation is illustrated with the Golden Gate Bridge, which has stood for more than seven decades since it was opened on May 27, 1937 (Figure 3). When an inferior solution comes out of a flawed design process, catastrophe may result, and a bridge may collapse with possible loss of lives. Such an occurrence is illustrated below by the Tacoma Narrows Bridge Collapse (Figure 3). On November 11, 1940, this bridge, located at Puget Sound, Washington, began swaying strongly in the wind and eventually broke up due to the resonance of the bridge which twisted until it broke up. There are mathematical tools available to analyze for waves and resonance of structures, but they were not applied in the design process of the bridge. This demonstrates the importance and need to broadly explore and utilize mathematics and science appropriate to the engineering design problem at hand.

The Golden Gate Bridge and the Tacoma Narrows Bridge. The Golden Gate Bridge, a signature landmark of San Francisco, had the world’s longest span when opened May 27, 1937. The Tacoma Narrows Bridge, Puget Sound, Washington, broke up after in a strong wind on November 11, 1940.

Activity - Impact of disaster on an industry's design practice.

There have been many other disasters that occurred because of a flawed design process. One is the consecutive crashes of two British Comet jets in 1954. Go to the two web sites that describe the investigation and the resulting design changes: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Havilland_Cometand http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TWA_Flight_800. How did the disasters cause engineers to change the airplane’s design?

What Is Science?

The meaning of what science is can be debated and has changed over time. It is reasonable to think today of science as a process by which humans try to understand how the natural world works and how it came to be that way. The branches of science most frequently used by engineers include physics, chemistry, and biology. This is reflected by the fact that almost all undergraduate engineering programs require students to take foundational courses in those subjects. An example of how such science connects to engineering can be shown with the global problem of the lack of access to clean water by populations in some of the developing countries around the world. In developed countries turning on the bathroom faucet gives safe and drinkable water gushing from the tap. This safe and convenient water is actually a luxury that is not present everywhere. When it is not available, and water is not purified, people can become sick or even die from causes such as dehydration, cholera, dysentery, and cancer. So how have engineers figured out how to find, transport, purify, sanitize, and deliver water to those who need it? The following example should help answer that question as well as give a concrete example of how science connects with engineering.

Although more than half of the surface of the earth is covered with water, it is not accessible to plants, animals, or humans because of its % salt content. So, can we just remove the salt? No, because it is not so easy and can be costly. Science provides a variety of phenomena that can be used to desalinate water, and a few will be presented here. Chemistry tells us that there are many ways to desalinate water. One of the ways that water can be purified is by evaporation and condensation, which leaves the impurities in the original water. Another way is that, in freezing water the ice leaves the impurities behind in the unfrozen liquid. Another way is based on the fact that certain pore sizes of molecular membranes will allow water to diffuse through the membrane under pressure while leaving behind larger complexes of sodium and chlorine. Chemistry also has data on a variety of physical properties of water and salt water, including the thermodynamic data of heat of evaporation, heat of condensation, and heat of freezing. So what can be done with the different phenomena and all the data that are available?

The first question to answer is: Are there any types of engineering fields with individuals that work with such phenomena and data with the goal of desalinating water? The answer is yes. Chemical engineers are trained to use such phenomena and data to design and build large-scale processing plants for producing products such as cosmetics, antibiotics, and gasoline as well as purified water. Today, millions of gallons of water are being desalinated by flash evaporation, which uses evaporation and condensation phenomena, and by reverse osmosis, which uses molecular membrane technology based on membrane diffusion principles. A nuclear driven flash evaporation plant located on the Caspian Sea is shown in Figure 4.

Nuclear powered flash distillation desalination equipment located on the Caspian Sea.

What Is Mathematics?

Math is utilized in a variety of ways within many fields of engineering. The most crucial aspects of math within this field involve cost–benefit–risk analysis and the use of mathematical models. “Mathematical models may include a set of rules and instructions that specifies precisely a series of steps to be taken, whether the steps are arithmetic, logical, or geometric. Sometimes even very simple rules and instructions can have consequences that are difficult to predict without actually carrying out the steps. ... Often, it is fairly easy to find a mathematical model that fits a phenomenon over a small range of conditions ... but it may not fit well over a wide range.” (AAAS) Given the importance of having an end result that not only works, but also is safe and dependable, it is easy to understand why the use of mathematical models is an invaluable aspect of the engineering design process, as well as how these models would be applied to various steps within this process. Nearly every aspect of mathematics can be, and is, applied to the engineering design process in some way. All fields within engineering require an advanced knowledge of, and the ability to properly use, many math skills, including (but not limited to) algebra, calculus, geometry, measurements, tables and graphic representations of results, mathematical formulas, and time lines.

Activity—What kinds of science and math do engineers need to address some of today’s global societal issues?

Consider the list of contemporary global societal issues shown in Table 1. From the list, select two or three global issues of interest to you and write them down. Think about them and then write about the math and science that might be used to address each of the particular issues.

Contemporary global societal issues

Drought in the Southwest United States.
Lack of drinkable water in many nations.
Aging bridges that are prone to collapse.
Lack of accessible and reliable public transportation.
Need for renewable energy sources.
Children and others disabled by landmines and other weapons.
Environmental pollution from oil and chemical spills (Figure 5).
Need for safer cars.
Global warming from carbon emissions from burning fossil fuels (Figure 5).
Unsafe and unpleasant airports around the world.

Icebergs breaking off glaciers and an oil spill.

Review Questions

The following questions will help you assess your understanding of the What Is the Role of Science and Mathematics in Engineering? section. There may be one, two, three, or even four correct answers to each question. To demonstrate your understanding, you should find all of the correct answers.

1. Mathematical models
   1. describe scientific phenomena
   2. can evaluate cost
   3. require a calculator
   4. are easier to build than physical models
2. Engineers use mathematics and science to
   1. understand the world
   2. solve problems
   3. build models
   4. design a process
3. An example of a mathematical model is
   1. the budget for product development
   2. drawings used to design a product
   3. the engineering design process
   4. rate of the flow of water through a hose

Review Answers

What Is the Role of Science and Mathematics in Engineering?

1. a,b
2. b,c,d
3. d

Image Attributions

[Figure 1]

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:GoldenGateBridge-001.jpg http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Tacoma_Narrows_Bridge_Falling.png

License: Golden Gate Bridge—CC-BY 2.5., Tacoma Narrows Bridge—Public Domain

[Figure 2]

Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Shevchenko_BN350_desalinati.jpg

License: Public domain

[Figure 3]

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Icebergs_cape_york_1.JPG http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Oil-spill.jpg

License: Icebergs—CC-BY-SA 2.0. Oil Spill—Public Domain

5.4: How Do Math and Science Connect with Engineering in High School and College?

Preparatory High School and College Courses

Many high school and college courses are needed to prepare for an engineering education.

Precollege Courses

If a student wants to consider the possibility of pursuing a college degree in engineering, what types of K-12 courses should he/she take? Before even entering high school, students should investigate the admittance requirements of the universities for a student’s high school education. Universities set guidelines of prerequisite requirements upon applying. Most require a minimum of four years of high school mathematics, including at least the basic math courses (algebra one and two, geometry, trigonometry, and analytical geometry), and a minimum of four years of science, again covering at least the basic courses (chemistry, biology, and physics). Also, along with these set requirements for course work, most reputable engineering programs require submitting a placement exam (such as ACT or SAT) scores and show no deficiencies in either math or science.

College Courses

Once admitted into a college engineering program students will be required to complete a year of college math and physics (about 10 courses). This would include fundamental science courses (Chemistry, Biology, Physics) and basic math courses (Calculus I, II, III and Differential Equations). These are usually the minimum level required for engineers in general, but specific engineering disciplines may require more. Most programs also require about a semester (5 courses) of “engineering science courses” where the understandings of math and science are directed toward broad applied science and math courses. They might include courses such as Circuits, Statics, Dynamics, Fluids, Materials, Thermodynamics, and Statistics. The connections of math and science to engineering in these applied courses are quite obvious, for example, with the chemistry and differential equations used in Engineering Thermodynamics.

Science and Mathematics Courses Connected to Engineering

Basic math and science provide the tools of mathematical techniques and science phenomena that engineers use to address design problems related to phenomena of the natural world. They build on similar math and science foundational courses in high school that are introductory with a lower level of math that describe natural phenomena. The college level math and science courses provide a base for advanced math and science courses necessary to address more complex problems in a given engineering discipline. The basic math and science courses have also been utilized for a broad range of practical engineering applications to develop courses that are referred to as engineering science courses such as Thermodynamics, Circuits, and Fluids. For example, the Engineering Science course of Fluids is typically taken by Chemical, Mechanical, Aerospace, and Biomedical Engineering students. That is because the general principles of Fluids apply to fluid flow of air for airplanes as well as flow of gases in internal combustion engines while fluid flow of liquid is used to analyze blood flow in humans as well as flow of chemicals in chemical processing plants. Thus, the connection of basic math and science to engineering is shown directly and unambiguously both as a base for advanced courses as well as being integrated into broadly subscribed Engineering Science courses. Brief descriptions of the basic math and science courses are presented here followed by short descriptions of the most widely subscribed Engineering Science courses.

Physics. Physics is the science of matter and the interaction of matter. It describes and predicts phenomena about matter, movement and forces, space and time, and other features of the natural world.

Chemistry. Chemistry is the science of the phenomena about composition, structure, and properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions, especially as related to various atoms, molecules, crystals, and other aggregates of matter.

Biology and Biological Sciences. Biology is the science of living organisms that describes and predicts phenomena related to the structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, and distribution of living things as well as the interactions they have with each other and with the natural environment.

Calculus. Calculus is the mathematics of change which includes the study of limits, derivatives, integrals, and infinite series; many disciplines in engineering address problems that must be solved by differential calculus and integral calculus.

Differential Equations. Differential equations are equations with variables that relate the values of the function itself to its derivatives of various orders. Differential equations are used for engineering applications where changing quantities modeled by functions and their rates of change expressed as derivatives are known or postulated giving solutions that are dependent on boundary conditions.

Engineering Courses Connected to Science and Mathematics

As discussed previously, the basic math and science courses have been utilized for a broad range of practical engineering applications to develop courses that are referred to as engineering science courses such as Thermodynamics, Circuits, and Fluids. For example, the Engineering Science course of Fluids is typically taken by Chemical, Mechanical, Aerospace, and Biomedical Engineering students. That is because the general principles of Fluids apply to fluid flow of air for airplanes as well as flow of gases in internal combustion engines while fluid flow of liquid is used to analyze blood flow in humans as well as flow of chemicals in chemical processing plants. Thus, the connection of basic math and science to engineering is shown directly and unambiguously both as a base for advanced courses as well as being integrated into broadly subscribed Engineering Science courses. Brief descriptions of the basic math and science courses are presented here followed by short descriptions of the most widely subscribed Engineering Science courses. Similar arguments apply to other engineering science courses that are also broadly subscribed by many disciplines. The courses will be briefly described in this section.

Dynamics. The field of dynamics uses the knowledge of classical mechanics that is concerned with effects of forces on motion of objects. Engineers use the concepts in design of any moving parts, such as for engines, machinery and motors. For example, a mechanical engineer would have used Dynamics extensively in the design of the pneumatically powered, multirow seed planter that was invented in 1956.

Electric Circuits. The field of circuits applies physics of electrical phenomena to the design, analysis, and simulation of linear electric circuits and measurements of their properties. The principles are used in circuit designs for wide ranging applications such as motors, cell phones, and computers. For example, an electrical engineer would have used Circuits extensively in the design in 1980 of the first circuit board with built-in self-testing technology.

Fluids. The subject of fluid mechanics uses physics of fluids to understand and predict the behavior of gases and liquids at rest and in motion which are referred to as fluid statics and fluid dynamics. As described previously, there are a broad set of engineering applications including air flow for airplanes and in internal combustion engines as well as fluid flow of liquid blood in humans as well as flow of chemicals in chemical processing plants. For example, a chemical engineer would have used the subject of Fluids extensively in the design of deep-draft pumping of oil from a depth of 4800 feet in the Gulf of Mexico begun in 2000.

Materials Science and Engineering. This subject utilizes the synthesis techniques of chemistry and the characterization tools of physics, such as the atomic force microscope, to control and characterize the properties of the structure and properties of solid materials. The principles of materials science are broadly used by a variety of engineering disciplines including electronics, aerospace, telecommunications, information processing, nuclear power, and energy conversion. Applications vary from structural steels to computer microchips. A materials engineer would have applied the principles of Materials Science extensively in the design of synthetic skin which can act as a framework for live cells that grow into a layer of skin while the framework is absorbed by the body.

Mechanics of Solids. This subject uses concepts and knowledge of continuum mechanics emerging from physics and mathematics to understand and predict the behavior of solid matter under external actions, such as external forces, temperature changes, and displacement or strain. The principles are broadly used on a variety of topics for a number of engineering disciplines. It is part of a broader study known as continuum mechanics. Engineers use the principles to determine what happens when a stress is applied to a component. Concepts are useful anytime that a component departs away from the rest shape due to stress. The amount of departure from rest, which is initially elastic or proportional to stress, is safe as long as the material is below its yield strength. For example, an aerospace engineer would have used Mechanics of Solids extensively in the design of the Space Shuttle first launched on April 12, 1981.

Statics. This is the engineering application of a branch of physics called Mechanics. It describes bodies which are acted upon by balanced forces and torques so that they remain at rest or in uniform motion. In statics, the bodies being studied are in equilibrium. The equilibrium conditions are very similar in the planar, or two-dimensional, and the three-dimensional rigid body statics. These are that the vector sum of all forces acting upon the body must be zero; and the resultant of all torques about any point must be zero. Thus it is necessary to understand the vector sums of forces and torques. For example, a civil engineer would have used Statics extensively in the design of the Golden Gate Bridge in 1937.

Engineering Thermodynamics. This subject uses the concepts of science that deal with transfer of heat and work which are used to solve engineering problems. Engineers use thermodynamics to calculate energies in chemical processing, to calculate the fuel efficiency of engines, and to find ways to make more efficient systems, be they rockets, refineries, or nuclear reactors. For example, a mechanical engineer would have used “thermo” extensively in the design of an “alternative energy vehicle” that uses natural gas.

Activity—Differing educational focus of different engineering disciplines

Choose two or three types of engineers and describe and write down what you think are the typical math and science classes they might take that will provide a focus for their future professional activities.

Review Questions

The following questions will help you assess your understanding of the How Do Math and Science Connect with Engineering in High School and College? section. There may be one, two, three, or even four correct answers to each question. To demonstrate your understanding, you should find all of the correct answers.

1. College engineering programs require
   1. ACT or SAT scores
   2. letters or recommendation
   3. four years of high school mathematics
   4. an essay about engineering
2. Engineering students must be able to
   1. apply math and science to problems
   2. remember math and science problems
   3. major in a math or science field
   4. use math and science as tools
3. If you want to become an engineer you should study
   1. mostly mathematics
   2. mostly science
   3. mathematics and science
   4. some history
4. English is as important as mathematic and science because
   1. engineers must be able to write
   2. engineers must communicate with the public
   3. engineers must communicate with coworkers
   4. engineers must be well rounded
5. Engineering requires that you understand
   1. timelines
   2. calculus
   3. geometry
   4. formulas
6. The best indicator of success in an engineering major in college is
   1. overall grade point average in high school
   2. taking three years of metal shop in high school
   3. taking two computer science courses in high school
   4. successfully completing four years of math courses in high school

Review Answers

How Do Math and Science Connect with Engineering in High School and College?

1. a,c
2. a,d
3. c
4. a,b,c
5. a,b,c,d
6. b,d

5.5: Connecting Engineering Career Fields with Science and Engineering

This section discusses the nature of a variety of engineering disciplines: the background, engineering activities, and what is designed and built by engineers in the discipline.

Agricultural engineering involves the design of agricultural machinery and equipment, the development of ways to conserve water and improve the processing of agricultural foods, and the development of ways in which to conserve soil and water. None of this would be possible without an understanding of geology, chemistry, and biology.

Aerospace engineers use their knowledge of physics, math, and engineering to design and build airborne and space structures and the systems that support them. These include airplanes, helicopters, rockets, satellites, and the space shuttle. Examples of new human-related challenges are in designing safer and more comfortable commercial aircraft and in designing private airplanes for the elderly and physically challenged. Aerospace engineers typically work for organizations such as Lear, Boeing, and NASA.

Bioengineers design and develop devices and procedures that solve medical and health-related problems by combining a knowledge of physics, chemistry, biology, and medicine with engineering principles. They develop and evaluate systems and products such as artificial organs, prostheses, instruments, medical information systems, and health management and care delivery systems. They work with doctors and health care specialists to design and build components and systems that aid and improve the physical well being of humans. These include diagnostic devices (e.g. blood sugar sensors for diabetics) and body repair or replacement parts such as artificial hips or prosthetic legs. Examples of new challenges include developing organ replacements and sensors to monitor body chemistry. Bioengineers typically work for companies such as Medtronic, Baxter Healthcare, and Johnson and Johnson.

Chemical engineers apply the principles of chemistry to solve design and supervise facilities for the production and use of chemicals and biochemicals. They must be aware of all aspects of chemicals manufacturing and how the manufacturing process affects the environment and the safety of the workers and consumers. Examples include desalinization plants and semiconductor processing equipment. Examples of new human-related challenges are in designing and building equipment for large-scale production of artificial skin and bacteria-created antibiotics. They typically work for organizations such as Dow, DuPont, Motorola, and Monsanto.

Civil engineers design and supervise construction of structures and infrastructure such as roads, buildings, bridges, and water supply and sewage systems. Examples of new human-related challenges are in providing ready access and easy mobility for the elderly and physically challenged to all structures as well as infrastructure improvements for controlling and reducing urban environmental pollution of water and air. Civil engineers typically work as consultants and for architectural and city organizations such as Del Webb Houses and the City of Phoenix. They make use of mechanics from physics in the design of roads and structures, but also need the tools of chemistry and biology when addressing environmental issues related to water supply and sewage.

Computer scientists and engineers design computers and the instruction sets in computer programs that control systems and devices in the world around us. Examples are automobile engine controls or Internet information delivery. Examples of new human-related challenges are in developing programs that help physically challenged for controlling the motion of artificial limbs or for driving a car. Computer engineers work for companies such as Microsoft, Apple, and Hewlett Packard.

Electrical engineers design and fabricate electrical and electronic devices and systems. Examples include cell phones, televisions and skyscraper electrical delivery systems. Examples of new human-related challenges are in developing the sensors and electronics for bionic systems such as artificial eyes and ears. Electrical engineers typically work for organizations such as ATT, Motorola, Intel, and Medtronic.

Industrial engineers design and implement the most cost-effective organization of resources (people, information, energy, materials, and machines) for manufacturing and distributing engineering services and goods. Examples of new human-related challenges are improving safety and ergonomic design of cars for average or physically challenged individuals. Industrial engineers typically work for a variety of manufacturing organizations such as Intel, Boeing, and Honeywell.

Materials engineers design, select and improve the materials used in a wide array of engineering applications. These include the alloys in jet engines, plastics in bicycles, ceramics in radar equipment, composites in golf clubs, and semiconductors in cell phones. Examples of human-related challenges are new and improved materials for leg, arm or hand prosthetics and implants for hips and other joints. Materials engineers typically work for a variety of organizations such as Motorola, Boeing, and Ford.

Mechanical engineers use physics principles of motion, energy and force as a basis for understanding, analyzing, designing, and building mechanical components and systems. Such systems could include bicycles, cars, engines, and solar energy systems. New human-related challenges could include robotically controlled artificial limbs and mechanical components for an artificial heart. Mechanical engineers often work for organizations such as Boeing, Intel, and Honeywell.

Nuclear engineers design and build the processes, instruments, and systems that include radioactive materials. They might design nuclear power plants to generate electricity or to power ships and submarines. They also might design medical devices and systems that use trace amounts of radioactive material for diagnostic imaging and radiation treatment. This field makes extensive use of chemistry, biology, and physics in designing for such applications.

Activity—What kinds of engineers are needed in a team to solve a specific problem.

For each of the global societal issues in Table 1 in the What Is the Role of Science and Mathematics in Engineering? section, decide the types of engineers that would be needed on a team to address these issues.

Activity—What do career resources say about engineering?

The purpose of this activity is to help you compare answers about various fields in engineering and the possible uses of math and science within these fields. Access the occupational outlook handbook on the web site http://www.bls.gov/oco/. On this site, click on the “ to  Index,” and then click on the letter “” in the index. Take a moment to note the numerous options listed within “Engineering” or that have “Engineering” in their title. Select the “engineers” option, and you will be directed to a page that lists all possible career paths for a student pursuing engineering, along with a brief description of each specialty. Examine these career paths and then answer the following questions:

• Did you learn about any different new engineering careers or activities?
• Give an example for a single engineering career about the nature of the work, working conditions, training requirements, employment, job outlook, and earnings.

Review Questions

The following questions will help you assess your understanding of the Connecting Engineering Career Fields with Science and Engineering section. There may be one, two, three, or even four correct answers to each question. To demonstrate your understanding, you should find all of the correct answers.

1. Aerospace engineers
   1. train air traffic controllers to use up-to-date equipment
   2. design airport runways and passenger lounges
   3. teach at the Air force Academy in Colorado
   4. design and build things such as airplanes and space shuttle
2. Agricultural engineering involves
   1. designing the best layout for a farm
   2. selecting the plants that will produce the largest crop
   3. designing agricultural machinery and equipment
   4. selecting the best way to transport products to market
3. The engineering field or fields that use a great deal of mathematics are
   1. marine engineering
   2. nuclear engineering
   3. chemical engineer
   4. industrial engineer
4. Bioengineers
   1. work with doctors and health care specialists
   2. develop devices to diagnose diseases
   3. must have a medical degree
   4. develop health management systems
5. Most chemical engineers
   1. know how making chemicals affects the environment
   2. typically work for the military creating weapons
   3. are not responsible for their products’ safety
   4. transform gases and liquids into useful products
6. Electrical engineers
   1. write computer programs
   2. build solar energy systems
   3. build sensors
   4. design computers
7. Mechanical engineers
   1. work on mechanical rather than human-related problems
   2. use physics principles of energy, force, and motion
   3. develop new materials for building mechanical devices
   4. none of the above
8. Civil engineers
   1. build bridges and water systems
   2. work primarily for the federal government
   3. do not need a background in biology
   4. none of the above

Review Answers

Connecting Engineering Career Fields with Science and Engineering

1. d
2. c
3. a,b,c,d
4. a,b,d
5. a,d
6. c
7. b
8. a

5.6: Connecting Mathematics and Science to the Engineering Design Process

Who Is the Client or Customer for the Designed Artifact

There are many types of societal issues which extend beyond the borders of any single state or country that will impact the quality of many people’s lives in the future. However, in order to address a given global issue, it has to be reconfigured into a local issue, whether it is at the city, county, state, region, or national level. Then local action can be taken to address a local problem, which then contributes to the solution of the global range of the problem. For example, for the issue of Drought in the Southwest, a way to address this as a local problem might be given by the question, “How can water be conserved in the city of Phoenix?” Thus, the design process for a product designated for the public good requires consideration of the scope of implementation. For example, will the designed artifact or process address an audience of one person or many people? Do they live locally on the block or in the town, or regionally in the county or state or contiguous states or possibly nationally or internationally one. These issues will be considered in the exercise below.

Activity—Who is client or sponsor for a designed societal issue solution?

Select three or four topic from the list of global issues in Table 1 in the What Is the Role of Science and Mathematics in Engineering? section that interest you. Describe and write down who the clients or customers might be for the three or four issues you selected.

A Streamlined Engineering Design Process

The design process begins when a client or customer has a problem or need and wants a designed solution resulting in a product that meets the need or solves the problem. Sometimes, a new product is developed from scratch which would require a new design and sometimes innovations are used to improve existing products, in which case some aspects of an already existed design would be modified. New products generally use an open-ended process that rarely has a single correct solution. Instead, there are several solutions that will satisfy desired needs with varying degrees of effectiveness. In this section, we will indicate how each step of the design process is connected to math and science. One of the challenges of design is to choose from a number of possible solutions. However, a clearly defined process flow is needed so that designs are developed to meet the needs of customer or client. We will demonstrate how math and science connect to engineering in the engineering design process with a simplified example to facilitate understanding. The process is usually iterative but a single cycle will be used here since the goal is to show the math and science connection to engineering (Figure 6). Briefly stated, the streamlined steps in the design process might consist of the following:

• Identify a problem or a need.
• Define requirements and constraints.
• Generate ideas or brainstorm for set possible solutions.
• Use requirements and constraints to evaluate possible solutions.
• Use the chosen solution to design and build a prototype.
• Test and evaluate the prototype and modify if necessary to finalize prototype.
• Communicate the results.

A simplified engineering design process.

Case Study—Water for a Small, Isolated Seaside Village in an Underdeveloped Country

Let us say that there is a small village of 50 people living in a tropical climate at the desert’s edge by the sea and named Ecologia. It is connected to the next small village 150 miles away by a poor one-lane road that is sometimes impassable due to dust storms and bad repair. The town lives by fishing from the ocean and by farming a small patch of vegetables, but does have a few gasoline-powered generators to supply some electricity to the village. It is located in the underdeveloped country of Optimicia which does not have the resources to supply utilities such as electricity, water, and communication to the town. A single well has supplied water to the town, but the water level is dropping and it may go dry. The village would like to have another means of supply of water to supplement the current supply and assure sufficient quantities for the future.

This scenario will be used with the goal being to demonstrate math and science connections to engineering in the design process. As such, detailed numbers and calculations are not used, so decisions and details will not be rigorous in order to simplify the example. We now go through the steps of the design process, pointing out the connections to science and math.

Identify the Problem. An isolated village next to the ocean with 50 lower income people has no connection to government supported utilities, the nearest town 150 miles away on a poor road, and the village’s deep well water source that is being depleted. A new source of water is needed.

Science connection. A civil engineer might use an instrument to monitor the well water level to measure the rate of depletion of water.

Math connection. Mathematics could be used to develop a model for cost and availability of current water sources (wells, monsoons, and trucked in water).

Define Requirements and Constraints. Requirements might include the purity of the water, the rate at which water is produced, the lifetime required from a designed system, and the fact that, since the village is off the electrical distribution grid, no utilities are available to support the system. Constraints might include various cost limitations such as for design, fabrication, operation, and maintenance of the system, as well as possible safety and environmental considerations. From the sets of requirements and constraints, as well as consideration of the context of the situation with the village, people, and environment, a problem statement could be developed and might read as follows: “A system for producing drinkable water will be developed which will supply the needs of 50 people such that the cost is no greater than $2 per thousand gallons, including materials, construction, and operation over a period of 10 years.”

Science connection. A knowledge of the science underlying the various existing techniques is necessary so that the widest range of approaches to providing water is explored.

Math connection. Mathematical models may be used here to examine water costs for different systems so that a reasonable set of requirements and constraints are used in generating the problem statement. There are mathematical models that describe costs for existing techniques, but new models would need to be created if a new technology was devised.

Brainstorm Alternative Solutions. At this stage of the process the widest variety of ideas and/or possible solutions needs to be explored for the design problem. These ideas can come from many different sources: existing products, brainstormed ideas, ideas from scientific principles, and any other approaches possible. The body of these possibilities, or design concepts, needs to then be shaped into a component, system or process that could fulfill the set of requirements and constraints as possible problem solutions. Some approaches may be thrown out early if they have little potential (e.g., supplying pure water from icebergs to a village near the equator is probably not feasible).

Science connection. A variety of solutions could be generated based on scientific principles as shown with the following examples. Sea water can be purified by freezing, but this is not a good approach for a village near the equator. Purifying sea water by distillation (evaporation and condensation) could be used in a solar still or in a flash evaporation plant. Purifying seawater by removing salt with a membrane could be done with a reverse osmosis plant. Moving pure water to the town by new wells, by truck or by pipeline are other possible solutions without much science.

Math connection. Mathematical models to roughly estimate costs for the various approaches could be generated in the first portion of this step of the design process. They are also used to predict a cost for various alternative solutions that arise during idea generation phase and can help analyze the linkage between the science behind a technique and the cost of implementing it with materials, fabrication or manufacturing, operation, and maintenance. These costs then need to be normalized for the sake of comparison with other options to cost per thousand gallons of water.

Evaluate Solutions. Potential designs are evaluated relative to the constraints and criteria, and one or more are selected to be designed in detail and prototyped. The selection is made using a structured process that requires the requirements be met and chooses the best design according to the requirements and constraints. To continue to show math and science connections it will be assumed that the best design was a solar still for desalination (Figure 7). Using that choice other design steps will now be considered.

Design and Build Prototype. The selected design is developed in full detail and components' specific shapes and dimensions determined. Materials are selected and components are fabricated and prototype assembled. Prototype operation and performance may be modeled on a computer. For the hypothetical design a prototype solar still is built.

Science connection. A more detailed knowledge of the science can be created with more accurate values of physical parameters which will also provide information that may affect various costs for the components of the prototype. The nature of the physical phenomena that are occurring within various components should be modeled from the viewpoint of the science-based ideal so that performance can be evaluated when the prototype is tested.

Math connection. Mathematical models of performance based on science phenomena will be generated to evaluate the prototype.

Test and Evaluate prototype. Prototypes are tested to see if the design meets all requirements and performs acceptably. The performance should be compared to the ideal performance determined from mathematical modeling of the prototype. Differences between the ideal and real performance should be analyzed and understood. The design process may be iterated and refined to improve performance until it is acceptable. Sometimes, testing and evaluation show that a design will not work, so that a different design concept must be selected by returning to evaluate alternative solutions. If the hypothetical solar still meets performance specifications and fulfills constraints then solution can be communicated

Science connection. The scientific model of operation should approximate the actual prototype performance; if not, then there may be science phenomena not correctly implemented in the model or there may be other issues in construction or operation that needs to be diagnosed to have a model that is a good predictor of performance.

Math connection. The mathematical model of operation should be tested to make certain that the model has been constructed properly using the appropriate science and mathematics.

Communicate results. The activities and results of the design process should be documented and communicated to the appropriate client or customer.

Science connection. All steps of the design process should be documented and justification for decisions should be made clear. The science behind the choice of the solution to the design problem should be made clear, including factors and weights of requirements and constraints used to select the solution.

Math connection. The mathematical model of operation should be well documented so that a basis for performance and effectiveness of the design is demonstrated. The model should also be documented so that the effectiveness of the design in fulfilling the client's needs is demonstrated.

Activity - Connecting Math and Science to the Engineering Design Process in Addressing a Global Societal Issue or Problem

Select one issue of your choice from the list of global issues in Table 1 of the What Is the Role of Science and Mathematics in Engineering? section. Specify and write down the problem scenario that describes the people and their situation who are the clients who will benefit from your design problem solution for the chosen Societal Issue. Now explain and write down what types of engineers are needed for the project team that will be working on the Societal Issue. Now, as was demonstrated for the Case Study previously, describe and write down for each step in the Simplified Design Process what is happening for the chosen Societal Issue along with what math and science is being used and how it is being used.

Review Questions

Multiple Choice

The following question will help you assess your understanding of the Connecting Mathematics and Science to the Engineering Design Process section. There may be one, two, three, or even four correct answers to each question. To demonstrate your understanding, you should find all of the correct answers.

1. An important use of mathematics in engineering is to determine
   1. how much engineers should be paid for a design
   2. the price of software needed to create a design
   3. the cost of different designs of the same product
   4. how much to charge a customer who wants a design

Free Response Questions

2. What role do math and science play in the creative process of engineering design?
3. What impact do science and math play in designing and developing a better artifact from the engineering design process?
4. How do math and science connect with engineering in the engineering design process compared to what happens in other types of design processes (architectural, fashion, etc.)?
5. How can you tell if an artifact created from a design process has considered enough ideas from engineering, science, and math connections, and the associated variety of possible problem solutions to ensure that a high-quality artifact has been created from an effective design process?
6. What is the role of math and science in connecting to engineering in developing characteristics of a good problem definition statement?
7. How are math and science connections to engineering used in the steps of the engineering design process? Why the steps are not always completed in order?
8. How does the connection of math and science to engineering affect the team decision making processes in the engineering design process?
9. What role does the connection of math and science to engineering play in creating a detailed design from implementing the major concept of the chosen solution to the design problem?

Review Answers

Connecting Mathematics and Science to the Engineering Design Process

1. c

Image Attributions

[Figure 1]

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